1. Introduction
Rasht, the capital of Gilan Province, due to its unique geographical conditions—including heavy rainfall, proximity to the Caspian Sea, and an extensive river network—is constantly exposed to natural hazards, particularly recurrent flooding. In addition, the city’s strategic location and high population density have increased its vulnerability to human-induced threats and potential crises. In recent years, the occurrence of devastating floods and the resulting damages have underscored the urgent need to enhance urban resilience and adopt passive defense strategies. Moreover, uncontrolled urban development, the deterioration of parts of the urban fabric, and the lack of safety standards in building design have weakened Rasht’s urban infrastructure, making it less capable of withstanding disasters. Many residential and public buildings lack the necessary standards to resist earthquakes or waterlogging, and crisis management systems remain underdeveloped. These deficiencies, in emergency situations, can lead to irreparable human and financial losses. Passive defense, as a preventive approach, can enhance urban security and resilience without relying on military tools—through intelligent urban design and resilient architecture. However, Rasht has yet to implement a comprehensive plan for integrating passive defense principles into its urban development and construction projects. This raises a critical question: How can spatial-physical strategies based on passive defense be employed to improve Rasht’s urban resilience against natural and human-induced hazards?
 
2. Methodology
This study is applied in nature and, in terms of data collection, follows an exploratory-descriptive and analytical approach. Methodologically, it employs both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Data collection tools include interviews and questionnaires. The statistical population of the study consists of two groups: The first group comprises experts and professionals in the fields of architecture, urban planning, and urban development, selected through convenience sampling, totaling 25 participants. The second group includes local residents of Rasht, selected through random sampling. Using Cochran’s formula, the sample size was determined to be 384 individuals. For data analysis, grounded theory methodology and SPSS software were employed.
3. Results
At the metropolitan scale, six semantic units were identified under two main categories: the distribution pattern of vital centers and emergency access systems. At the neighborhood level, six semantic units were classified into two categories: resilient neighborhood unit design and secure collective spaces. At the building scale, 22 semantic units were extracted, encompassing a range of components including: principles of defensive design, technical building details, integration of indigenous knowledge and modern technology, climate-adaptive architecture, quantitative design standards (spatial indicators), creation of secure spaces, concealment principles, and structural reinforcement strategies. Subsequently, Pearson correlation coefficients revealed a strong and statistically significant positive relationship—at the 0/99 confidence level—between the dimensions of urban resilience and spatial-physical strategies of passive defense in architectural design. Furthermore, regression analysis indicated that, based on the adjusted coefficient of determination, 0/95 of the variance in the dependent variables (economic, socio-cultural, environmental-physical, and institutional resilience) can be explained by the independent variable: spatial-physical strategies of passive defense.
 
4. Discussion
This study presents a systematic set of strategies at metropolitan, neighborhood, and building scales, offering a comprehensive model for enhancing urban resilience in Rasht. These strategies, grounded in the principles of passive defense and tailored to local characteristics, aim to reduce vulnerability to floods and earthquakes, improve access to emergency services, and extend the lifespan of buildings—thereby simultaneously enhancing urban safety and residents’ quality of life. Implementation of these strategies through public participation, the use of reinforced local materials, and the adoption of appropriate technologies not only positions Rasht as a successful model of resilient urban planning, but also contributes to long-term cost reduction and the creation of sustainable employment—laying the foundation for socio-economic development in the region. This research demonstrates that integrating traditional knowledge with modern technologies can serve as a national strategy for intelligently addressing environmental challenges and securing a safer future for the citizens of Rasht.
 
 
5. Conclusion
This study proposes a practical model for enhancing urban resilience in Rasht by offering spatial-physical strategies across metropolitan, neighborhood, and building scales. The implementation of these strategies—through the integration of indigenous knowledge and modern technologies—not only reduces vulnerability to hazards, but also contributes to sustainable development and improves the quality of life in Rasht.
 
Author Contributions
In the preparation and writing of this article, all authors (first, second, and et al) have contributed equally and jointly. All stages of the research, from study design and data collection to analysis of results and final writing of the article, are the result of collaboration and collective agreement of all authors.
 
Data Availability Statement
Data available on request from the authors.
 
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to everyone who assisted us in conducting this research.
 
Ethical Considerations
All authors affirm that this research was conducted in accordance with ethical standards, with no data fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism.
 
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest