1. Introduction
Human settlements result from continuous interactions between people and their natural environment and are shaped by a combination of environmental, cultural, economic, and social factors. Settlement patterns reflect how human societies adapted to environmental opportunities and constraints and therefore provide valuable evidence for reconstructing past human–environment relationships and cultural landscapes (Hodder, 1992; Wilkinson, 2003). Within this framework, landscape archaeology emphasizes the spatial analysis of archaeological remains to explain how environmental and cultural variables influenced settlement location and organization (Kantner, 2014). Advances in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have significantly improved the analysis of settlement patterns by enabling quantitative assessment of environmental variables such as elevation, slope, aspect, land use, water availability, and communication routes (Warren & Asch, 2000; Niknami et al., 2007; Trigger, 1967). Although archaeological surveys have identified numerous prehistoric sites in the southern High Zagros, particularly in Khanmirza County (Rezvani, 2009, 2010, 2011), the environmental determinants of Neolithic settlement location remain poorly understood. Using an interdisciplinary approach that integrates archaeological field survey data with GIS-based spatial analysis, this study evaluates the influence of key environmental variables on the distribution of Neolithic settlements in Khanmirza and compares the results with previous studies from other parts of the Zagros Mountains (Bahraminia et al., 2013; Heydari Dastenaei et al., 2017).


2. Methodology
Settlement pattern analysis aims to examine the spatial distribution of archaeological sites and their relationships with environmental and cultural variables through data collection, subsistence reconstruction, spatial organization analysis, and evaluation of factors influencing site location (Hole, 1980). In this approach, variables such as elevation, slope, aspect, water resources, vegetation, and communication routes are considered key determinants of settlement distribution (Karimian et al., 2012). Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have become an essential tool for quantitative spatial analysis, enabling the reconstruction of archaeological landscapes and the interpretation of settlement patterns (Saeedi Harsini et al., 2012: 35; Yousefi Zoshk & Baghizadeh, 2012: 11). In the present study, systematic pedestrian survey data were integrated with documentary sources. The locations and characteristics of 20 Neolithic sites were recorded using GPS and subsequently analyzed in GIS and SPSS to evaluate the influence of environmental variables on site location and reconstruct the spatial settlement pattern of Neolithic communities in Khanmirza County.

3. Results
Elevation analysis indicates that 55% of the 20 Neolithic sites are located between 1,929 and 2,308 m above sea level, 30% between 2,309 and 2,630 m, and 15% between 1,571 and 1,928 m. This concentration reflects both the mountainous topography of the High Zagros and the relative suitability of mid-altitude zones for Neolithic settlement. Slope analysis shows that Neolithic sites are distributed across seven slope classes, with the highest frequencies (30% each) occurring on 3–5% and 12–15% slopes. This distribution suggests that slope was not a primary determinant of settlement location, compared with water resources, elevation, and land use.
GIS analysis indicates that the Neolithic sites are distributed across seven slope-aspect classes, with the highest frequency (20%) on eastern, southwestern, and northwestern aspects. As no aspect contains more than 50% of the sites, slope aspect was not a dominant factor in settlement location, compared with water availability, elevation, and land-use suitability. Analysis shows that 50% of the Neolithic sites lie within 862–1,817 m and 80% within 3 km of surface water sources, highlighting the fundamental role of permanent water in settlement location. These results indicate that proximity to water was one of the primary environmental criteria for Neolithic communities in Khanmirza.
Half of the sites are located on irrigated agricultural land and 25% in open woodlands suitable for grazing. This distribution highlights the importance of mixed farming and herding, indicating that agricultural potential was the primary criterion for settlement location, followed by access to pastoral resources. Neolithic sites are distributed across several precipitation and temperature classes, with the highest frequencies (30%) occurring in intermediate rainfall (590.3–597.2 mm) and temperature (11.2–12.6°C) ranges. As no single class contains more than 50% of the sites, precipitation and temperature were less influential than water availability, land use, and elevation in settlement location. Analysis of traditional communication routes shows that 55% of the Neolithic sites are located within 801–2,000 m of local routes, highlighting the importance of accessibility in settlement location. The continuity of modern villages along these corridors suggests that some present-day routes may preserve ancient communication networks.

4. Discussion
The spatial analysis demonstrates that Neolithic settlement distribution in Khanmirza was primarily controlled by environmental resources rather than by topographic or climatic constraints. The concentration of sites at mid-elevations (1,929–2,308 m) reflects both the geomorphological character of the High Zagros and the ecological suitability of these zones for permanent occupation. Although settlements occur across a range of slope gradients and aspects, their broad distribution indicates that these variables exerted only a limited influence on site selection. In contrast, proximity to permanent water sources emerged as the most significant factor, with most sites located within 3 km of surface water. Likewise, the dominance of irrigated agricultural land and open woodlands emphasizes the importance of a mixed farming–pastoral economy in shaping settlement patterns. Climatic variables, including rainfall and temperature, display no strong spatial concentration, suggesting that abundant water resources reduced their influence on settlement decisions. Finally, the clustering of sites near traditional communication routes highlights the long-term importance of accessibility and suggests continuity between prehistoric pathways and present-day local transport networks.

5. Conclusion
This study highlights the importance of integrating archaeology and geography to explain Neolithic settlement organization in the High Zagros. Spatial analyses using GIS and statistical methods demonstrate that site selection in Khanmirza County was primarily influenced by permanent water availability, land-use potential, accessibility to communication routes, elevation, and, to a lesser extent, slope. The concentration of settlements near water resources, irrigated farmland, open woodlands, and traditional routes reflects a mixed farming–pastoral economy supported by favorable environmental conditions. Most sites are located between 1,900 and 2,300 m above sea level, suggesting that this altitudinal range provided optimal ecological settings, a pattern that remains evident in the region today. In contrast, slope aspect, precipitation, and temperature played comparatively minor roles. By combining systematic archaeological survey with spatial modeling, this research provides a robust framework for reconstructing human–environment interactions and prehistoric cultural landscapes. Despite the lack of detailed paleoenvironmental datasets, the findings offer a valuable basis for future interdisciplinary studies of mountain settlement systems across the Zagros and other regions of Iran.

Author Contributions
All authors contributed equally to all aspects of this study and approved the final manuscript.

Data Availability Statement
Data available on request from the authors.

Acknowledgments
This paper is derived from the first author's PhD dissertation and is based on the results of two seasons of archaeological field surveys conducted in the study area. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism, the Research Institute of Archaeology, the Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts Office of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, the University of Mazandaran, and all members of the archaeological survey team whose assistance and fieldwork contributed significantly to the successful completion of this research.

Ethical Considerations
The authors declare that this research was conducted in accordance with ethical standards and research integrity principles.

Funding
This article is derived from the first author’s doctoral dissertation, which was developed based on the results of two seasons of archaeological fieldwork in the study area. The authors express their sincere gratitude and appreciation to the Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism, the Research Center for Archaeology, the General Department of Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, and Mazandaran University for their cooperation, coordination, and support in carrying out this research. Furthermore, sincere thanks are extended to the members of the archaeological survey team, including Fatemeh Amirhajloo, Roya Khanjani, Marzieh Alipour, Motahareh Ramazani, Laili Jamshidi, Zahra Taherzadeh Naghneh, Salman Jamalpour, Esmail Heidarian, and Mohammad Pirchalili, undergraduate students of Archaeology at Shahrekord University, as well as Ahmadreza Hassani, a Ph.D. student of Archaeology at Art University of Isfahan, for their valuable participation
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.